CensoredDistraction and Diversion Inside China's Great FirewallMargaret E. Roberts
Censored: Distraction and Diversion Inside China’s Great Firewall
審查:中國防火牆內的攻心和轉心
A groundbreaking and surprising look at contemporary censorship in China
As authoritarian governments around the world develop sophisticated technologies for controlling information, many observers have predicted that these controls would be ineffective because they are easily thwarted and evaded by savvy Internet users. In Censored, Margaret Roberts demonstrates that even censorship that is easy to circumvent can still be enormously effective. Taking advantage of digital data harvested from the Chinese Internet and leaks from China's Propaganda Department, this important book sheds light on how and when censorship influences the Chinese public.
Roberts finds that much of censorship in China works not by making information impossible to access but by requiring those seeking information to spend extra time and money for access. By inconveniencing users, censorship diverts the attention of citizens and powerfully shapes the spread of information. When Internet users notice blatant censorship, they are willing to compensate for better access. But subtler censorship, such as burying search results or introducing distracting information on the web, is more effective because users are less aware of it. Roberts challenges the conventional wisdom that online censorship is undermined when it is incomplete and shows instead how censorship's porous nature is used strategically to divide the public.
Drawing parallels between censorship in China and the way information is manipulated in the United States and other democracies, Roberts reveals how Internet users are susceptible to control even in the most open societies. Demonstrating how censorship travels across countries and technologies, Censored gives an unprecedented view of how governments encroach on the media consumption of citizens.
As authoritarian governments around the world develop sophisticated technologies for controlling information, many observers have predicted that these controls would be ineffective because they are easily thwarted and evaded by savvy Internet users. In Censored, Margaret Roberts demonstrates that even censorship that is easy to circumvent can still be enormously effective. Taking advantage of digital data harvested from the Chinese Internet and leaks from China's Propaganda Department, this important book sheds light on how and when censorship influences the Chinese public.
Roberts finds that much of censorship in China works not by making information impossible to access but by requiring those seeking information to spend extra time and money for access. By inconveniencing users, censorship diverts the attention of citizens and powerfully shapes the spread of information. When Internet users notice blatant censorship, they are willing to compensate for better access. But subtler censorship, such as burying search results or introducing distracting information on the web, is more effective because users are less aware of it. Roberts challenges the conventional wisdom that online censorship is undermined when it is incomplete and shows instead how censorship's porous nature is used strategically to divide the public.
Drawing parallels between censorship in China and the way information is manipulated in the United States and other democracies, Roberts reveals how Internet users are susceptible to control even in the most open societies. Demonstrating how censorship travels across countries and technologies, Censored gives an unprecedented view of how governments encroach on the media consumption of citizens.
MargaretE. Roberts is assistant professor of political science at the University of California, San Diego.
// Margaret E. Roberts 新作《滅聲》(Censored: Distraction and Diversion Inside China’s Great Firewall),形容擅於審查資訊的中國政府,是一個「迹近完美的案例」(a nearly ideal case),皆因中國新聞審查之伎,手法包羅萬象,網絡警察與五毛黨龐大成軍、防火長城無遠弗屆、高科技應用超前,蟻民自覺變成奴隸,傲視全球專制同儕。
Roberts 把政府主導的審查行為,歸類為三個 ‘F’,第一是製造恐懼 (Fear)、第二是增加阻力(Friction),第三是資訊泛濫 (Flooding) 以混淆視聽 ... //
強國崛起,開創新時代人類政治文明,其中一個偉大貢獻,正是豐富了人們對「新聞審查」的認識與想像。
美國學者 Margaret E. Roberts 新作《滅聲》(Censored: Distraction and Diversion Inside China’s Great Firewall),形容擅於審查資訊的中國政府,是一個「迹近完美的案例」(a nearly ideal case),皆因中國新聞審查之伎,手法包羅萬象,網絡警察與五毛黨龐大成軍、防火長城無遠弗屆、高科技應用超前,蟻民自覺變成奴隸,傲視全球專制同儕。
Roberts 把政府主導的審查行為,歸類為三個 ‘F’,第一是製造恐懼 (Fear)、第二是增加阻力(Friction),第三是資訊泛濫 (Flooding) 以混淆視聽。
「製造恐懼」正是最傳統的滅聲伎倆,透過法令與高壓行政手段阻嚇人發布消息,如微博封號、撤換媒體編輯、以言入罪等。但此手段若針對廣大群眾,可能有反效果,會影響政府公信力,也吸引民眾更留意政府不想你知的事。新聞封鎖太高調,會出現所謂「史翠珊效應」。美國著名藝人芭芭拉史翠珊,十多年前不滿一個民間組織航拍加州海岸照片,令其大宅曝光,侵犯其私隱,遂興訟禁制,但史翠珊敗訴。案件引人注目,數以十萬計網民湧到網站查看其大宅照片,結果欲蓋彌彰,適得其反。
故精明的審查黑手,會把威逼利誘的手段,集中用於關鍵發布者,如媒體把關人及意見領袖,很多人為了趨吉避凶,老大哥還未出手,已經乖乖就範。
「增加阻力」的手段,則較隱密亦較高明,例如不想你接觸的網站,會減慢網速、封鎖網站、不讓你搜索敏感詞,雖然你可以買軟件翻牆或重覆嘗試,但要額外付出時間與金錢,等同一種「資訊稅」(tax on information)。現實中,大部分人不關心政治,無耐性,亦無時間;況且娛樂資訊選擇多,少少麻煩已足以令人放棄追蹤政府不想你知的新聞。
作者引述北京清華大學 2015 年做的全國調查,訪問了三千多城鎮居民,六成人會上網,當中48% 網民表示不知道「翻牆」是什麼,知道可以翻牆的人中,只有 18% 曾經用 VPN 翻牆,即是說,網民中只有約 8.3% 曾經翻牆。從未翻牆的人被問原因,恐懼 (2%) 與可能違法 (9%) 佔比例很少,較多不翻牆的人表示無需要 (45%)、不懂得如何翻 (15%) 及麻煩(14%),可見縱使有翻牆的可能,大部分人根本不利用亦不關心。
在香港,大家可以留意由國家控制的香港連鎖書店,好些敏感話題書籍已不能上架或入貨極少,令你難以買到,有效減少流通,而且普通人不易察覺,正是「增加阻力」之妙用。
「資訊泛濫」之法,則發放大量無關宏旨的訊息,如洪水暴發,轉移視線,令人花多眼亂;眾聲喧嘩中,平常人無時間無心力分辨真假輕重。大家有眼見,眾多新興親建制媒體,主打軟性新聞、消閑資訊、娛樂至死。作者又追蹤中國網軍與五毛黨的宣揚策略,出乎意料,他們其實很少挑起政治爭論,主要做啦啦隊,動員愛國心、中國夢、感恩、宣揚傳統文化、寫寫名言與心靈雞湯正能量,往往在政治敏感時期有分散注意力的效果。
也許有人會問,如此「資訊豐富」都是審查一種?Roberts 認為,此舉有效淹沒政府不想你知的訊息,增加人們找尋有意義訊息的成本,就有消聲的效果。所謂言論自由,除了說話的自由,要需要有被聽到的可能;若然言論被淹沒,或渠道被堵塞,這種言論自由並無意義。
說到中國新聞審查嚴苛,傳媒訊息片面,很多內地朋友必然一臉不同意,也許還會覺得自己上網很自由。這正是審查黑手高明之處。
Roberts 形容中國的審查方式,是 Porous Censorship ,姑且名之「孔洞審查」,即是審查系統未至於鐵板一塊,而是有孔洞,敏感訊息還有散播的方式。
例如中國技術上可以完全禁止民眾翻牆,網上禁言可以更堅壁清野,完全封鎖臉書,甚至可以訂立行政命令拘捕翻牆的人;還未做,乃因避免惹來大反彈,反而損害政府公信力,況且利用「增加阻力」的方式減慢網絡上政治不正確訊息的傳播速度,已能有效阻止殺傷力大的負面訊息流傳。加上現時以「資訊泛濫」的方式淹沒民眾觸覺,令人感覺資訊目不暇給;政府刪了什麼、媒介缺了什麼重要訊息,平常人不易察覺;就算發覺有不妥,也可能以為是社交媒體演算法不向你提供某些訊息,而非背後有黑手。
Roberts 的研究發現,內地積極翻牆尋找訊息的人,比例極少,都屬學歷高、掌握網絡技術、關心政治的一群;絕大部分人都是「理性地無知」(rationally ignorant)。選取訊息時,只求方便、容易、減少成本,網絡慢了,很快就放棄,以為網絡不暢,根本不知道原來是政府刻意為之。
Roberts 的研究發現,內地積極翻牆尋找訊息的人,比例極少,都屬學歷高、掌握網絡技術、關心政治的一群;絕大部分人都是「理性地無知」(rationally ignorant)。選取訊息時,只求方便、容易、減少成本,網絡慢了,很快就放棄,以為網絡不暢,根本不知道原來是政府刻意為之。
這種審查新境界,已經到了 Aldous Huxley 在《勇敢新世界》一書前言所述的境地:真正高效的極權管治,正是獨攬大權的政治大佬與其執行大軍,控制一大群不須被脅迫的奴隸。
起來,不願做奴隸的人們。這句歌詞,歷久不衰,仍然充滿現實意義。
接下來還會有何新式審查高招?Roberts 提出一個可能:以後的網絡審查,也可以個人化,按你的政治危險程度,封鎖不同訊息,或灌輸老大哥想洗你腦的訊息。一如現時網絡廣告,以大數據洞悉你想法後,再為你的消費模式度身發送宣傳品;日後的審查,也可因應你的政治不正確程度,調校審查內容。技術上,隨時做得到。
平凡人如何應對?Roberts 追蹤觀察中國網民於微博遭刪文的反應,發現若網民知道自己發布的訊息遭審查屏蔽的話,不罷休,會更積極發文。
結果帶來一點啟示:蟻民首先要深刻認識審查手法,這是防止被愚弄的第一步;我們也要運手僅餘的自由,盡力把老大哥熟練的攻心計手段與各種審查戰略大聲疾呼、公諸於世。審查資訊等同欺騙、愚民,亦代表心虧、有隱瞞、有黑幕;暴露審查伎倆,縱使不能摧毀審查機器,最少能讓人看清其華麗外衣下的虛偽與險詐,讓體制公信力歸零,操控陰招事倍功半。
*** *** ***
(本文部分內容原刊於明報專欄《2047夜》,此為加長版,本文內容絕大部分引述自 Roberts 新書,包括 Aldous Huxley 之引文。)
沒有留言:
張貼留言